Rates of confirmatory HIV testing, linkage to HIV services, and rapid initiation of antiretroviral treatment among newly diagnosed children living with HIV in Ethiopia: perspectives from caregivers and healthcare workers.

BACKGROUND: Successful linkage to HIV services and initiation of antiretroviral treatment (ART) for children living with HIV (CLHIV) is critical to improve pediatric ART coverage. We aimed to assess confirmatory testing, linkage, and rapid ART initiation among newly diagnosed CLHIV in Ethiopia from the perspectives of caregivers and healthcare workers (HCWs). METHODS: We conducted standardized surveys with HCWs and caregivers of children 2-14 years who were diagnosed with HIV but not yet on ART who had been identified during a cross-sectional study in Ethiopia from May 2017-March 2018. Eight health facilities based on their HIV caseload and testing volume and 21 extension sites were included. Forty-one children, 34 care givers and 40 healthcare workers were included in this study. Three months after study enrollment, caregivers were surveyed about timing and experiences with HIV service enrollment, confirmatory testing, and ART initiation. Data collected from HCWs included perceptions of confirmatory testing in CLHIV before ART initiation. SPSS was used to conduct descriptive statistics. RESULTS: The majority of the 41 CLHIV were enrolled to HIV services (n = 34, 83%) and initiated ART by three months (n = 32, 94%). Median time from diagnosis to ART initiation was 12 days (interquartile range 5-18). Five children died before the follow-up interview. Confirmatory HIV testing was conducted in 34 children and found no discordant results; the majority (n = 23, 68%) received it within one week of HIV diagnosis. Almost all HCWs (n = 39/40, 98%) and caregivers (n = 31/34, 91%) felt better/the same about test results after conducting confirmatory testing. CONCLUSION: Opportunities remain to strengthen linkage for newly diagnosed CLHIV in Ethiopia through intensifying early follow-up to ensure prompt confirmatory testing and rapid ART initiation. Additional services could help caregivers with decision-making around treatment initiation for their children.

Comparison of COVID-19 Pandemic Waves in 10 Countries in Southern Africa, 2020-2021.

We used publicly available data to describe epidemiology, genomic surveillance, and public health and social measures from the first 3 COVID-19 pandemic waves in southern Africa during April 6, 2020-September 19, 2021. South Africa detected regional waves on average 7.2 weeks before other countries. Average testing volume 244 tests/million/day) increased across waves and was highest in upper-middle-income countries. Across the 3 waves, average reported regional incidence increased (17.4, 51.9, 123.3 cases/1 million population/day), as did positivity of diagnostic tests (8.8%, 12.2%, 14.5%); mortality (0.3, 1.5, 2.7 deaths/1 million populaiton/day); and case-fatality ratios (1.9%, 2.1%, 2.5%). Beta variant (B.1.351) drove the second wave and Delta (B.1.617.2) the third. Stringent implementation of safety measures declined across waves. As of September 19, 2021, completed vaccination coverage remained low (8.1% of total population). Our findings highlight opportunities for strengthening surveillance, health systems, and access to realistically available therapeutics, and scaling up risk-based vaccination.

Childhood Physical Health and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Modifiable Factors.

Although neurobiologic and genetic factors figure prominently in the development of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), adverse physical health experiences and conditions encountered during childhood may also play a role. Poor health is known to impact the developing brain with potential lifelong implications for behavioral issues. In attempt to better understand the relationship between childhood physical health and the onset and presence of ADHD symptoms, we summarized international peer-reviewed articles documenting relationships between a select group of childhood diseases or health events (e.g., illnesses, injuries, syndromes) and subsequent ADHD outcomes among children ages 0-17 years. Drawing on a larger two-phase systematic review, 57 longitudinal or retrospective observational studies (1978-2021) of childhood allergies, asthma, eczema, head injury, infection, or sleep problems and later ADHD diagnosis or symptomatology were identified and subjected to meta-analysis. Significant associations were documented between childhood head injuries, infections, and sleep problems with both dichotomous and continuous measures of ADHD, and between allergies with dichotomous measures of ADHD. We did not observe significant associations between asthma or eczema with ADHD outcomes. Heterogeneity detected for multiple associations, primarily among continuously measured outcomes, underscores the potential value of future subgroup analyses and individual studies. Collectively, these findings shed light on the importance of physical health in understanding childhood ADHD. Possible etiologic links between physical health factors and ADHD are discussed, as are implications for prevention efforts by providers, systems, and communities.

Adapting strategies for effective and efficient pediatric HIV case finding in low prevalence countries: risk screening tool for testing children presenting at high-risk entry points in Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Implementing effective and efficient case-finding strategies is crucial to increasing pediatric antiretroviral therapy coverage. In Ethiopia, universal HIV testing is conducted for children presenting at high-risk entry points including malnutrition treatment, inpatient wards, tuberculosis (TB) clinics, index testing for children of positive adults, and referral of orphans and vulnerable children (OVC); however, low positivity rates observed at inpatient, malnutrition and OVC entry points warrant re-assessing current case-finding strategies. The aim of this study is to develop HIV risk screening tool applicable for testing children presenting at inpatient, malnutrition and OVC entry points in low-HIV prevalence settings. METHODS: The study was conducted from May 2017-March 2018 at 29 public health facilities in Amhara and Addis Ababa regions of Ethiopia. All children 2-14 years presenting to five high-risk entry points including malnutrition treatment, inpatient wards, tuberculosis (TB) clinics, index testing for children of positive adults, and referral of orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) were enrolled after consent. Data were collected from registers, medical records, and caregiver interviews. Screening tools were constructed using predictors of HIV positivity as screening items by applying both logistic regression and an unweighted method. Sensitivity, specificity and number needed to test (NNT) to identify one new child living with HIV (CLHIV) were estimated for each tool. RESULTS: The screening tools had similar sensitivity of 95%. However, the specificities of tools produced by logistic regression methods (61.4 and 65.6%) which are practically applicable were higher than those achieved by the unweighted method (53.6). Applying these tools could result in 58‒63% reduction in the NNT compared to universal testing approach while maintaining the overall number of CLHIV identified. CONCLUSION: The screening tools developed using logistic regression method could significantly improve HIV testing efficiency among children presenting to malnutrition, inpatient, and OVC entry points in Ethiopia while maintaining case identification. These tools are simplified to practically implement and can potentially be validated for use at various entry points. HIV programs in low-prevalence countries can also further investigate and optimize these tools in their settings.

Pretreatment Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Drug Resistance Among Treatment-Naive Infants Newly Diagnosed With HIV in 2016 in Namibia: Results of a Nationally Representative Study.

Background: The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends routine surveillance of pretreatment human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) drug resistance (HIVDR) in children <18 months of age diagnosed with HIV through early infant diagnosis (EID). In 2016, 262 children <18 months of age were diagnosed with HIV in Namibia through EID. Levels of HIVDR in this population are unknown. Methods: In 2016, Namibia surveyed pretreatment HIVDR among children aged <18 months following WHO guidance. Reverse transcriptase, protease, and integrase regions of HIV-1 were genotyped from remnant dried blood spot specimens from all infants diagnosed with HIV in Namibia in 2016. HIVDR was predicted using the Stanford HIVdb algorithm. Results: Of 262 specimens genotyped, 198 HIV-1 protease and reverse transcriptase sequences and 118 HIV-1 integrase sequences were successfully amplified and analyzed. The prevalence of efavirenz/nevirapine (EFV/NVP), abacavir (ABC), zidovudine, lamivudine/emtricitabine (3TC/FTC), and tenofovir (TDF) resistance was 62.6%, 17.7%, 5.6%, 15.7%, and 10.1%, respectively. No integrase inhibitor resistance was detected. Conclusions: The high level of EFV/NVP resistance is unsurprising; however, levels of ABC and TDF resistance are among the highest observed to date in infants in sub-Saharan Africa. The absence of resistance to dolutegravir (DTG) is reassuring but underscores the need to further study the impact of ABC and 3TC/FTC resistance on pediatric protease inhibitor- and DTG-based regimens and accelerate access to other antiretroviral drugs. Results underscore the need for antiretroviral therapy optimization and prompt management of high viral loads in infants and pregnant and breastfeeding women.

Cervical cancer screening and treatment, HIV infection, and age: Program implementation in seven regions of Namibia.

The aim of this study was to assess differences in cervical cancer screening and treatment outcomes by HIV status in a routine programmatic setting with a high generalized HIV prevalence. Women living with HIV (WLHIV) are at heightened risk of developing cervical cancer and the World Health Organization recommends all WLHIV who are sexually active be screened, regardless of age. In 2018, Namibia's Ministry of Health and Social Services introduced a screen-and-treat approach using visual inspection with acetic acid (VIA) and ablative treatment with cryotherapy or thermocoagulation with a focus on screening HIV-positive women due to Namibia's 11.5% prevalence of HIV in women aged 15-49. Using program data from October 2018 to March 2020 from seven of the country's 14 regions, we calculated descriptive statistics and chi-square tests to test the statistical significance of differences in VIA-positivity, ineligibility for ablative treatment, treatment completion, and same day treatment completion by HIV status. Between October 2018 and March 2020, the program conducted 14,786 cervical cancer screenings. Among 8,150 women who received their first VIA screening, more WLHIV screened VIA-positive (17%) than HIV-negative women (15%). This difference was statistically significant (p = 0.02). Among 2,272 women who screened VIA-positive at any screening, 1,159 (82%) completed ablative treatment. This suggests ablative treatment is feasible and acceptable in resource-limited settings. WLHIV were also more likely to complete treatment than HIV-negative women (p<0.01). Differences in health seeking behavior of sub-populations as well as resource availability between service delivery points should be considered for further investigation. Going forward in order to strengthen program implementation and expand screening access and uptake further investigation is needed to determine cancer incidence by HIV status, age, and time since last screening to assess cases that are averted as well as potential rates of overtreatment.

Persistence of Positive RT-PCR Results for Over 70 Days in Two Travelers with COVID-19.

The relation of continuing to test positive for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) by reverse transcription real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) to infectivity remains unclear, with numerous consequences. This report describes 2 patients with persistent viral detection by RT-PCR for 77 and 72 days, respectively, longer than other reported case-patients who were otherwise healthy.

Finding Children Living With HIV in Low-prevalence Countries: HIV Prevalence and Testing Yield From 5 Entry Points in Ethiopia.

BACKGROUND: Limited data in low HIV prevalence settings such as Ethiopia limit policy development and implementation of optimized pediatric testing approaches to close the treatment gap. This study aimed to determine HIV prevalence, testing yield and factors associated with HIV among children at 5 entry points. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study from May 2017 to March 2018 in 29 public health facilities in Amhara and Addis Ababa regions in Ethiopia. Children 2-14 years were enrolled through 5 entry points. Data were obtained from registers, medical records and interviews with caregivers. HIV prevalence and testing yields were calculated for each entry point. Mixed-effects logistic regression analysis identified factors associated with undiagnosed HIV. RESULTS: The study enrolled 2166 children, of whom 94 were HIV positive (40 newly diagnosed). HIV prevalence and testing yield were the highest among children of HIV-positive adults (index testing; 8.2% and 8.2%, respectively) and children presenting to tuberculosis clinics (7.9% and 1.8%) or with severe malnutrition (6.5% and 1.4%). Factors associated with undiagnosed HIV included tuberculosis or index entry point [adjusted odds ratio (aOR), 11.97; 95% CI 5.06-28.36], deceased mother (aOR 4.55; 95% CI 1.30-15.92), recurrent skin problems (aOR 17.71; 95% CI 7.75-40.43), severe malnutrition (aOR 4.56; 95% CI 2.04-10.19) and urban residence (aOR 3.47; 95% CI 1.03-11.66). CONCLUSIONS: Index testing is a critical strategy for pediatric case finding in Ethiopia. Strategies and resources can prioritize minimizing missed opportunities in implementing universal testing for very sick children (tuberculosis, severe malnutrition) and implementing targeted testing in other entry points through use of factors associated with HIV.

The role of Namibia Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Programme in strengthening the public health workforce in Namibia, 2012-2019.

Namibia faces a critical shortage of skilled public health workers to perform emergency response operations, preparedness activities and real-time surveillance. The Namibia Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Programme (NamFELTP) increases the number of skilled public health professionals and strengthens the public health system in Namibia. We describe the NamFELTP during its first 7 years, assess its impact on the public health workforce and provide recommendations to further strengthen the workforce. We reviewed disease outbreak investigations and response reports, field projects and epidemiological investigations conducted during 2012-2019. The data were analysed using descriptive methods such as frequencies and rates. Maps representing the geographical distribution of NamFELTP workforce were produced using QGIS software V.3.2. There were no formally trained field epidemiologists working in Namibia before the NamFELTP. In its 7 years of operation, the programme graduated 189 field epidemiologists, of which 28 have completed the Advanced FELTP. The graduates increased epidemiological capacity for surveillance and response in Namibia at the national and provincial levels, and enhanced epidemiologist-led outbreak responses on 35 occasions, including responses to outbreaks of human and zoonotic diseases. Trainees analysed data from 51 surveillance systems and completed 31 epidemiological studies. The NamFELTP improved outcomes in the Namibia's public health systems; including functional and robust public health surveillance systems that timely and effectively respond to public health emergencies. However, the current epidemiological capacity is insufficient and there is a need to continue training and mentorship to fill key leadership and strategic roles in the public health system.

Rapid Adaptation of HIV Treatment Programs in Response to COVID-19 - Namibia, 2020.

Namibia is an upper-middle income country in southern Africa, with a population of approximately 2.5 million (1). On March 13, 2020, the first two cases of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in Namibia were identified among recently arrived international travelers. On March 17, Namibia's president declared a state of emergency, which introduced measures such as closing of all international borders, enactment of regional travel restrictions, closing of schools, suspension of gatherings, and implementation of physical distancing measures across the country. As of October 19, 2020, Namibia had reported 12,326 laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 cases and 131 COVID-19-associated deaths. CDC, through its Namibia country office, as part of ongoing assistance from the U.S. President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) provided technical assistance to the Ministry of Health and Social Services (MoHSS) for rapid coordination of the national human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) treatment program with the national COVID-19 response.

Survival and HIV-Free Survival Among Children Aged ≤3 Years - Eight Sub-Saharan African Countries, 2015-2017.

Although mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is preventable through antiretroviral treatment (ART) during pregnancy and postpartum, the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) estimates that 160,000 new HIV infections occurred among children in 2018 (1). Child survival and HIV-free survival rates* are standard measures of progress toward eliminating MTCT† (2). Nationally representative Population-based HIV Impact Assessment (PHIA)§ survey data, pooled from eight sub-Saharan African countries¶ were used to calculate survival probability among children aged ≤3 years by maternal HIV status during pregnancy and HIV-free survival probability among children aged ≤3 years born to women with HIV infection, stratified by maternal ART** status during pregnancy. Survival probability was significantly lower among children born to women with HIV infection (94.7%) than among those born to women without HIV infection (97.6%). HIV-free survival probability of children born to women with HIV infection differed significantly by the timing of initiation of maternal ART: 93.0% among children whose mothers received ART before pregnancy, 87.8% among those whose mothers initiated ART during pregnancy, and 53.4% among children whose mothers did not receive ART during pregnancy. Focusing on prevention of HIV acquisition and, among women of reproductive age with HIV infection, on early diagnosis of HIV infection and ART initiation when applicable, especially before pregnancy, can improve child survival and HIV-free survival.

Scaling Up Testing for Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection Among Contacts of Index Patients - 20 Countries, 2016-2018.

In 2017, the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) estimated that worldwide, 36.9 million persons were living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, the virus infection that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Among persons with HIV infection, approximately 75% were aware of their HIV status, leaving 9.4 million persons with undiagnosed infection (1). Index testing, also known as partner notification or contact tracing, is an effective case-finding strategy that targets the exposed contacts of HIV-positive persons for HIV testing services. This report summarizes data from HIV tests using index testing in 20 countries supported by CDC through the U.S. President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) during October 1, 2016-March 31, 2018. During this 18-month period, 1,700,998 HIV tests with 99,201 (5.8%) positive results were reported using index testing. The positivity rate for index testing was 9.8% among persons aged ≥15 years and 1.5% among persons aged <15 years. During the reporting period, HIV positivity increased 64% among persons aged ≥15 years (from 7.6% to 12.5%) and 67% among persons aged <15 years (from 1.2% to 2.0%). Expanding index testing services could help increase the number of persons with HIV infection who know their status, are initiated onto antiretroviral treatment, and consequently reduce the number of persons who can transmit the virus.

Extending the Reach of Pediatric Emergency Preparedness: A Virtual Tabletop Exercise Targeting Children's Needs.

OBJECTIVES: Virtual tabletop exercises (VTTXs) simulate disaster scenarios to help participants improve their emergency-planning capacity. The objectives of our study were to (1) evaluate the effectiveness of a VTTX in improving preparedness capabilities specific to children's needs among pediatricians and public health practitioners, (2) document follow-up actions, and (3) identify exercise strengths and weaknesses. METHODS: In February 2017, we conducted and evaluated a VTTX facilitated via videoconferencing among 26 pediatricians and public health practitioners from 4 states. Using a mixed-methods design, we assessed participants' knowledge and confidence to fulfill targeted federal preparedness capabilities immediately before and after the exercise. We also evaluated the degree to which participants made progress on actions through surveys 1 month (n = 14) and 6 months (n = 14) after the exercise. RESULTS: Participants reported a greater ability to identify their state's pediatric emergency preparedness strengths and weaknesses after the exercise (16 of 18) compared with before the exercise (10 of 18). We also observed increases in (1) knowledge of and confidence in performing most pediatric emergency preparedness capabilities and (2) most dimensions of interprofessional collaboration. From 1 month to 6 months after the exercise, participants (n = 14) self-reported making progress in increasing awareness for potential preparedness partners and in conducting similar pediatric exercises (from 4-7 for both). CONCLUSIONS: Participants viewed the VTTX positively and indicated increased pediatric emergency preparedness knowledge and confidence. Addressing barriers to improving local pediatric emergency preparedness-particularly long term-is an important target for future tabletop exercises.

Preventive care services and health behaviors in children with fragile X syndrome.

BACKGROUND: This is the first description of preventive care services specifically received by children and young adults with fragile X syndrome (FXS). We compare these rates to those of other pediatric populations and identify care disparities within our cohort. OBJECTIVE: Describe the frequency of preventive care services and health behaviors by young people with FXS, and identify disparities in care. METHODS: We assessed four preventive care outcomes and the total number of preventive care guidelines met among individuals under 21 years from the ongoing Fragile X Online Registry with Accessible Research Database (N = 406) using data from 2012 to 2015. We used adjusted odds ratios (AORs) from multiple logistic regression models to describe associations between demographic factors and preventive care outcomes. RESULTS: Seventy-five percent of our sample met dental care guidelines, 55.4% met influenza vaccination guidelines, 92.1% met immunization guidelines, and 24.4% met physical activity (PA) guidelines. Compared to children six to 10 years, younger children were less likely to have seen a dentist as recommended (AOR: 0.26) and young adults aged 16-20 were less likely to have received immunizations (AOR: 0.14) or to have engaged in recommended PA (AOR: 0.29). Black participants (AOR: 0.25) were less likely to have received an influenza vaccination than white participants. Individuals with autism (AOR: 0.25) were less likely to have sufficient PA, while individuals with hypersensitivity were more likely to have sufficient PA (AOR: 2.37) than unaffected individuals. CONCLUSIONS: The proportion of young people with FXS that meet basic recommendations in preventive care guidelines varies according to health condition and demographic characteristics. This proportion could be increased for some groups, particularly in the cases of influenza vaccination and physical activity.

A Description of the Educational Setting Among Individuals With Fragile X Syndrome.

Children with fragile X syndrome (FXS) display wide-ranging intellectual and behavioral abilities that affect daily life. We describe the educational setting of students with FXS and assess the relationships between school setting, co-occurring conditions, and functional ability using a national survey sample ( n = 982). The majority of students with FXS in this sample have formal individualized education plans, spend part of the day outside regular classrooms, and receive modifications when in a regular classroom. Males with FXS and certain co-occurring conditions (autism, aggression, and self-injurious behavior) are more likely to spend the entire day outside regular classrooms, compared to males without these co-occurring conditions. Students who spend more time in regular classrooms are more likely to perform functional tasks without help.

Medical Countermeasures for Children in Radiation and Nuclear Disasters: Current Capabilities and Key Gaps.

OBJECTIVE: Despite children's unique vulnerability, clinical guidance and resources are lacking around the use of radiation medical countermeasures (MCMs) available commercially and in the Strategic National Stockpile to support immediate dispensing to pediatric populations. To better understand the current capabilities and shortfalls, a literature review and gap analysis were performed. METHODS: A comprehensive review of the medical literature, Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved labeling, FDA summary reviews, medical references, and educational resources related to pediatric radiation MCMs was performed from May 2016 to February 2017. RESULTS: Fifteen gaps related to the use of radiation MCMs in children were identified. The need to address these gaps was prioritized based upon the potential to decrease morbidity and mortality, improve clinical management, strengthen caregiver education, and increase the relevant evidence base. CONCLUSIONS: Key gaps exist in information to support the safe and successful use of MCMs in children during radiation emergencies; failure to address these gaps could have negative consequences for families and communities. There is a clear need for pediatric-specific guidance to ensure clinicians can appropriately identify, triage, and treat children who have been exposed to radiation, and for resources to ensure accurate communication about the safety and utility of radiation MCMs for children. (Disaster Med Public Health Preparedness. 2019;13:639-646).

Strategies for Identifying and Linking HIV-Infected Infants, Children, and Adolescents to HIV Treatment Services in Resource Limited Settings.

Many children living with HIV in resource-limited settings remain undiagnosed and at risk for HIV-related mortality and morbidity. This article describes 5 key strategies for strengthening HIV case finding and linkage to treatment for infants, children, and adolescents. These strategies result from lessons learned during the Accelerating Children's HIV/AIDS Treatment Initiative, a public-private partnership between the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) and the Children's Investment Fund Foundation (CIFF). The 5 strategies include (1) implementing a targeted mix of HIV case finding approaches (eg, provider-initiated testing and counseling within health facilities, optimization of early infant diagnosis, index family testing, and integration of HIV testing within key population and orphan and vulnerable children programs); (2) addressing the unique needs of adolescents; (3) collecting and using data for program improvement; (4) fostering a supportive political and community environment; and (5) investing in health system-strengthening activities. Continued advocacy and global investments are required to eliminate AIDS-related deaths among children and adolescents.